French and Indian War Brief Essay

Major Players in the French and Indian War The French and Indian War was primarily England and the American colonies against the French and various Native American tribes in America. As France expanded its colonies along the Ohio River, and Britain ventured further into the mountains and discovered them, it was inevitable that there would be competition, tension and eventually war between the two colonies. This war has come to be known as the French and Indian war, but it has various other names such as ‘The Seven Year War’ or ‘The War of British Conquest’. The war escalated into a world war in 1760 when France and Britain declared war on each other. It was sparked in America, not Europe, but Great Britain spent a lot of money in helping to fight the war and support to their colonies in America and the colonies participated fully in the war. Main reasons for the French and Indian War Britain and France had long been in a competition for territory in North America. The rich land west and north-west of the Appalachians was in top demand, for it was filled with waterways, fisheries, abundant game and beaver runs. Tensions grew until France and Britain finally declared war on each other for the region in 1756. In the first year, the British were defeated numerous times by the French and their allies, the Native Americans. This is when British Prime Minister William Pitt lent a hand to help out with the war, and funded an expanded war effort which involved shipping 10,000 soldiers overseas. He could see that there was potential of imperial expansion if France were defeated and borrowed substantial amounts of money to contribute. From then on, France’s attempts started to fail. By 1760 they were expelled from Canada, and their all allies in Europe were defeated or made separate peace with Prussia. The War comes to an end The French and Indian War was a great British victory. It ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris and also the Treaty of Hubertsburg in February 1763. In the Treaty of Paris, France lost east-Canada and gave Louisiana to Spain. Britain received Spanish Florida, Upper Canada and other French holdings overseas. The British were very pleased with the treaty, as they no longer had to worry about French attacks as much as they previously did. Also, the extra land meant more room for discovery and settlement, although there were still natives all through the land. Contribution the beginning of the American Revolution Fifteen years after the war, the bitterness the French felt after the loss of their colonial empire influenced their input in the American Revolution.

International Institutions and Realism

Becky, Tam Hing Lui Prof. Chan Ding Ding GPEC 5002 Challenges to the Global System: Insecurity of the World 17 November 2012 HOW CAN INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS FACILITATE COOPERATION? WHAT WOULD A REALIST SAY ABOUT INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS? Nations call for cooperation especially during and after crisis. One example was the Bretton Wood system created in 1944, with the purpose to revive the global economy after the serious damage in WWII. After the 2008 financial crisis, nations again asked for more international regulations and monitoring on the global financial system and suggested the â€Å"Bretton Wood II†.When we step back and think again, does the international regime facilitate cooperation between nations to solve global issues? The school of Liberalism puts more emphasis on the role of international institutions. Robert Keohane defined institutions as â€Å"persistent and connected sets of rules, both formal and informal, that prescribe behavioral roles, constrain a ctivity, and shape expectations† (1). By definition, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO) are formal institution while Bretton Wood Agreement, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) are informal.Under the anarchy environment in the international platform, it is possible to facilitate cooperation through the establishment of international organizations by two specific features: Centralization and Independence (2). It is the independence and neutral characteristic of the international organizations that enhance the legitimacy of its actions, causing states willing to gather together and authorize the international organizations to centralize the activities and ultimately achieve cooperation. This reduces transaction costs and increase efficiency.Institutions coordinate activities including setting up forums and conferences, managing substantive operations, norm elaboration, neutral information provider, acting as trustee/arbiter, i ntervention and enforcement (2). We have identified 5 signature international institutions (IMF, World Bank, Bretton Wood System, GATT, WTO) as examples below to illustrate how the conduct of the above mentioned activities through the international organizations facilitate cooperation in the modern history. (I) IMF, World Bank, the Bretton Wood System and GATTBoth IMF and World Bank were established since the Bretton Wood system began. After WWII, countries suffered from poor economy as global production and trade were dampened during the war period. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, countries attempted to shore up their failing economies by sharply raising barriers to foreign trade, devaluing their currencies to compete against each other for export markets, and curtailing their citizens' freedom to hold foreign exchange. These attempts proved to be self-defeating. World trade declined sharply, and employment and living standards plummeted in many countries (3).There was st rong common interest amongst the states to boost up the economy. To facilitate trade and production, a stable monetary system is necessary and this is where the Bretton Wood system began. The US took the lead to stabilize the international monetary system by pegging USD into gold at a fixed rate (USD35 / ounce of gold) while the remaining 44 countries agreed to keep their exchange rates pegged to USD at rates that could be adjusted only to correct a â€Å"fundamental disequilibrium† in the balance of payments, and only with the IMF's agreement.The IMF therefore became the independent clearing house of the balance of payments and to ensure the exchange rate mechanism worked as specified. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), now the World Bank Group underwrite private loans to stimulate economy. Both the organizations obtained the legitimacy from their independence and neutrality hence was able to manage the substantive operations between states efficie ntly and effectively. Members in General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreed on reduction in tariffs and trade barriers amongst members.The GATT, unlike the IMF and World Bank, was not an independent organization but rather a forum within which countries met. This provides a platform for elites to negotiate and reach agreement and avoid conflicts and adverse competition. With the GATT rounds held between 1947 and 1967, most barriers have been removed and tariffs have been the lowest. With the Bretton Wood framework in place along with the newly established international institutions which provide free market, long term capital and stable monetary system, global trade and production exploded during the period.Over the first 25 postwar years, the volume of world trade doubled every 10 years (4). This has been proven as a successful international cooperation in the modern history. (II) World Trade Organization (WTO) Established under the Marrakech Agreement in 1995, the Geneva based WTO replaced GATT as the center of world trade system. Its core principles are to promote market liberalization, non-discrimination and provide legal structure for international trade. Same as GATT, it provides forum for trade negotiations and administers trade agreements.In addition, WTO also supplies mechanism through which governments may resolve trade disputes, review and propagate the national trade policies, provide useful data and information, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making. The Decision making process is transparent, rules based and members driven. Each member government has one vote. WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.The Dispute Settlement Board consists of the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions (WTO website). According to WTO data, world merchandise exports worth over $5 trillion in 1998. In real terms, that represents an 18-fold increase over 1948. Exports of manufactures were 43 times larger than 50 years earlier. Over the same period, world output grew 8-fold, and world production of manufactures 10-fold. It is the independent and fair decision making process and the neutral dispute settlement mechanism given the legitimacy of WTO to attract members.The monitoring role and dispute settlement mechanism allow states to overcome â€Å"market failures† in international relations. Hence WTO can fully perform its functions to facilitate cooperation in order to promote trade. From the above examples, international institutions while maintaining independence and neutrality, promote states cooperation and achieve objectives by increasing the efficiency of collective activities, reducing conflicts, facilitating communications and negotiatio n and implementation of agreements. Realist a had different interpretation in the role of these international institutions.Traditional realists recognize that institutions are a vital part of the landscape of world politics. Traditional realism assess the effectiveness of institutions in 2 ways (5): [A] Institution as tools of empowerment enable hagemon to rule others and to manage regional and world affairs more effectively and efficiently than would be possible in their absence. [B] Institution as constraint such as balance of power politics and Concert diplomacy guide and direct Great Power behavior in accordance with the established rules of the game. We will continue with the example of 1944 Bretton Wood System to illustrate the above 2 points below.Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, the architect of the Bretton Wood System, was disappointed by the final evolution of the Bretton Woods institutions, for Keynes believed that the politicians were perverting the original i deas. The final design guaranteed predominance of the US due to various reasons including emphasis on USD by linking all currencies to USD, dominance of US power in the weighted percentage vote in IMF. However, this is inevitable in the realities of power politics as US was the lender while rest of the world were the borrower and US was the only superpower at that time.This explained the point A above that the hagemon (US) dominance to rule others and able to manage the international trade and monetary system more effectively and efficiently by putting the states into the Bretton Wood agreement and establishment of the institutions. The US and other states were constrained within the agreement and monitoring by the institutions as described in the above point B. While US constrained the other states by the guaranteed predominance in the system, US at the same time was constrained by losing its freedom on domestic policy as USD is pegged at a fixed rate to gold.Neorealists tend to do wnplay the role of institutions on cooperation. John Mearsheimer described international institution as â€Å"a set of rules that stipulate the ways in which states should cooperate and compete with one another† and claims that institutions â€Å"matter only on the margins† and â€Å"have minimal influence on state behavior† (6). Structural realists in the Waltzian vein also paid little attention to international institutions. Neorealists argue that institution cause states to behave in ways they otherwise would not behave, for example foregoing short term, self interest in favor of long-term community goals (Jervis 1983).In contrast, neoliberals claim that institutions matter because they enable states to do things they otherwise could not do, that is, achieve mutual gains from cooperation. Neorealists conceptualize institutions as constraints on state behavior; neoliberals see them as enabling states to reach mutually beneficial, cooperative outcomes. Neoreali sts emphasis on relative gains distribution amongst the actors within the institutions, while Neoliberals emphasis on maximizing overall absolute gains obtained in the community.The first point made by neorealists on the role of international institutions is â€Å"the emphasis on relative gains among actors could critically inhibit international cooperation†. Therefore, they may sometimes abstain from cooperation even when it would be beneficial for them in absolute terms. The overall result is that international institutions are more difficult to create and harder to maintain than neoliberals would have to believe. The likelihood for an institution to be put in place and to be stable is the greatest when the expected gains are balanced such that relative losses do not accrue (7).Without a higher power, states must worry about any state gaining a relative advantage through cooperation, because â€Å"today’s friend may be tomorrow’s enemy in war† (8). Just like what we have seen today, most of the institutions were first led by US as a higher power. States not only concern about cheating but also worry over the distribution of relative gains must be overcome for cooperation to blossom. One example would be the refusal of states to join the binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries in the second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol at UN climate talk in November 2011.While the biggest emitting countries – US, China and India refused to join, the existing countries in Kyoto Protocol, including Canada, Japan and Russia have already refused to sign on for a second commitment period, objecting to the lack of legal constraints on the world’s biggest carbon polluters. Europe says it can accept a continuation, provided China and the United States show they are serious about major cuts in the coming years. This evidenced when there is relative gains distribution issue and worries on cheating, cooperation is not possible.The second point is that â€Å"institutions are epiphenomenal, that they merely reflect power and interest† (9). They challenge the Independence of the international institutions. Institutions existed but do not mitigate in any way the anarchy of the international system and is the same world of power politics familiar to realists – institutions represented by powerful to serve their interests, and they are dissolved when power and interest shift. To illustrate, we will continue with the example of Bretton Wood system.During the late stage of Bretton Wood system, US power was declining as relied heavily on deficit spending while the other states growing surplus and gaining economic power. The intrinsic value of USD was declining due to deficit spending, over-investment outside US, spending on maintaining the military bases and the two wars US was fighting (Vietnam War and the large increase in social spending known as the War on Poverty) (4). While USD was officially pegged to gold at USD35 per ounce, USD was overvalued and investors and governments rushed to sell USD for gold.From 1961 until 1968, 7 billion dollars was cashed in, which took up more than 40% of US gold reserve. In 1971, US announced stopping the conversion of USD into gold and devaluation of USD. After the second devaluation of USD in 1973, all the states quitted the fixed exchange rate system and hence the Bretton Wood system officially collapsed since then together with the significantly reduced importance of IMF and World Bank. In my opinion, both schools of thoughts are important to explain different matters in different scenario.There is no one single answer towards whether international institutions facilitate cooperation or the opposite. As explained with the example of Bretton Wood system throughout the whole article, both liberal institutionalism and realism explained the setup of the system from different perspective while realism explained the end of th e cooperation. It appears that the effective cooperation induced by institutions is more transient in nature while power politics between the states is driving the backbone of the story.I believe realist view on international institution is more relevant to explain many of the critical outcomes in modern history. However, with globalization becomes the main theme of 21st century, role of state is diminishing as the dominance of multinational corporations does not preclude the characters of state. This creates more common interests between states, which make cooperation easier. The role of international institutions may be gradually enhanced and we may reach another conclusion. Works Cited 1. Keohane, Robert O. International lnstitutions and State Power: Essays in International Theory.Boulder: Westview Press, 1989 2. Abbott Kenneth and Snidal Duncan. The Oxford Handbook of International Relations, Ch. 11 , â€Å"Why States Act through Formal International Organizations. † Jour nal of Conflict Resolution. , 1998 3. IMF website. Cooperation and reconstruction (1944–71) http://www. imf. org/external/about/histcoop. htm 4. Frieden Jeffrey A. Global Capitalism Its Fall and Rise in the Twentieth Century. United States of America: Norton Paperback 2007 5. Schweller Randall and Priess David. A Tale of Two Realisms: Expanding the Institutions Debate.Mershon International Studies Review, Vol. 41, No. 1 (May, 1997), pp. 1-32 6. Mearsheimer, John. The False Promise of International Institutions. International Security. 1994/95 19(3):5-49. 7. Hasenclever Andreas, Mayer Peter and Rittberger Volker. Integrating Theories of International Regimes. Review of International Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Jan. , 2000), pp. 3-33 8. Grieco, Joseph M. , Powell Robert, and Nidal Duncans. The Relative-Gains Problem for International Cooperation. American Political Science Review 1993 87:729-743. 9. Stein Arthur A. Neoliberal Institutionalism Chapter 11 p. 206

A Review of Qualitative Research on Teenage Smoking Habits

A Review of Qualitative Research on Teenage Smoking Habits Grand Canyon University: NRS-433V-O103 Introduction to Nursing Research September 20, 2012 Introduction The purpose of this document is to summarize the contents of the research article, explain the research methods implemented, and offer insight on how the findings contribute to nursing practice. Second, there will be an explanation of ethical considerations associated with the conduct of nursing research. Finally, the source document, â€Å"What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? : A Qualitative Study† will be attached for review. SummaryThe articles purpose was to study smoking behavior among Malaysian teens. The specific areas of interest included: smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, intention to stop smoking, and attempts to stop smoking. The first stage of teen smoking behavior begins with casual experimentation and is followed by the maintenance phase when everyday ritual smoking is present. The fut ure dependence on smoking can be predicted by the individual’s actions during experimentation with cigarettes. Curiosity, peer pressure, and parental smoking were all reported reasons that teens decided to try cigarettes.In children less than thirteen year old, it was concluded that parental smoking played the largest role in behavior choices. This finding suggests that children are modeling the parents’ smoking behavior. However, older teens in secondary school reported peer pressure to be the reason for choices regarding cigarettes. Seventy-four percent of the participants reported that they smoked less than five cigarettes daily. This same portion or participants admitted that they smoked because they experienced physical symptoms of nicotine withdraw when they didn’t smoke daily.Consumption of cigarettes in this group was reported as a social activity among friends but mostly in secluded areas, to avoid getting caught. Most all adolescents that were active i n this study reported that they had intended to quit smoking in the future. The majority of participants had no clear plan on how they were going to stop and most had admitted to several failed attempts to stop smoking without help. Aspects to consider: relationships, athletic involvement, health concerns, lack of finances, and parental concern are all reasons that would cause a teen smoker to consider quitting.The participants that were able to stop smoking had a plan and picked a specific quit date. Methods of Study This information was collected and processed through a qualitative study. Specifically, it involved twenty-six teens from three public schools. Twenty-thee members of this sample group were smokers while three of the members had stopped smoking. Information was gathered through three focus group interviews, three in-depth interviews over twenty months, and questionnaires.The questions were asked in a non-formal conversational manner with important points or answers rec orded on a document designed to evaluate and sort information (site). The Social Cognitive Theory was used to organize collection of information and analysis. This theoretical framework was chosen based on the need for an explanation of teen smoking related to individuals, heath behaviors, and environments. The expectation is that Social Cognitive Theory would offer more insight on how these three elements would interact with each other simultaneously.Contribution to Nursing Smoking tobacco continues to be one of the top causes of preventable causes for death in America. There are 430,000 deaths, one point five million years of potential life lost, and fifty billion of lost medical debt related to tobacco use (Hollis, J. , Pollen, N,†¦ 2005). Nurses that identify younger clients at risk for tobacco can contribute to decline in morbidity related to smoking and assist in the decrease of medical debt. â€Å"The younger that youth are when they start using tobacco, the more likely they'll be addicted (CDC, 20012). The study offers insight to nursing practice for specific tailoring of a care plan for teens who smoke, parents who smoke, and how to target the education for quitting. The areas that affected teen’s interest in quitting included: athletic improvement, parents disapproval, health concerns, and lack of finances. Nurses can use the information from this study to reinforce the health promotion and benefits of being a non-smoker. The recognition of how parents affect smoking behaviors will aid the nurse in preparing education that is directed at the entire family to deter childhood and teen smoking.The contribution to patient care can be seen with health promotion assessment use. The conclusions were clear about teens needing a plan to quit after they reached the maintenance phase of smoking. This result alerts nurses to assess smoking in younger adolescence and offer assistance with smoking cessation. Ethical Issues First, The Research and Ethi c Committee of University Kebangsaan Malaysia gave approval before the study was started. Second, The Ministry of Education Malaysia offered authorization for interviews in the school system for children who were not involved in some type of major examination.Third, all of the teens along with parents provided a written and signed consent for participation. The confidentiality of current smoking status was kept intact and privacy was maintained. Lastly, at the conclusions of each interview the teens were offered smoking cession counseling at a doctor’s clinic. To ensure reliability of the study, several schools were used and different types of data collection utilized. There was self-reflexivity in minimizing opinions of the researchers. Validation was offered by minimal prompting, statement clarification, and rephrasing of questions. ConclusionThe study identified factors like nicotine addiction, personal, and environmental issues that influence of smoking behaviors in teens . These areas should be of great priority when developing smoking cessation programs for teens. The Social Cognitive Theory utilized in this study is an aid that helps nurses to understand smoking behaviors in teens and how to address barriers to break those influential factors. Since this study was done in one region of Malaysia, it may not apply to all areas outside of it. This was a very small study that cannot be applied to all cultures, geographic locations, and race.A better perspective would have been attained by selecting a wider group with random geographic location and equal gender participation. The male to female ratio for the study was unequal and this causes a shift in the standard deviation when scrutinizing the study from a statistical view. Having unequal gender numbers could cause a type I or II error which makes the information not entirely reliable (Grove, S. , 2012). References Center for Disease Control. (2012, January). We can make the next generation tobacco- free. Retrieved from http://www. cdc. gov/Features/YouthTobaccoUse/ Grove, Susan K. (2012).Statistics for Health Care Research: A Practical Workbook [1] (VitalSource Bookshelf), Retrieved from http://pageburstls. elsevier. com/books/978-1- 4160-0226-0/outline/11 Hollis, J. , Polen, M. , Whitlock, E. , Lichtenstein, E. , Mullooly, J. , Velicer, W. , & Redding, C. (2005). Teen Reach: outcomes from a randomized, controlled trial of a tobacco reduction program for teens seen in primary medical care. Pediatrics, 115(4 Part 1), 981-989. Tohid, H. , Ishak, N. d. , Muhammad, N. , Hassan, H. , & Omar, K. (2011). What determines teenagers’ smoking behavior? : A qualitative study. International Medical Journal, 18(3), 194-198. 194PSYCHIATRY Article Ititernational Medical Joumal. Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 194 – 198 , September 2011 What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? : A Qualitative Study Hizlinda Tohid†, Noriah Mohd. Ishak^', Noor Azimah Muhammad†, Hasliza Abu Has san^', Farah Naaz Momtaz Ahmad†, Khairani Omar'* ABSTRACT Objective: The study aimed to explore smoking behaviour among Malaysian teenagers that were related to their smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention, and quit attempts. Methods: It was a qualitative study that used multiple case study design, involving 26 teenagers (23 smokers and three former smokers) from three public schools.Data was collected via questionnaires, three focus group interviews and three in-depth interviews over 20 months, A standardised semi-structured interview protocol was utilised. Results: Among the participants, 74% of them started smoking after the age of 12 years old. The majority (20/23) of the teenage smokers admitted to smoking every day and 74% of them smoked not more than 5 cigarettes a day. All of the smokers had the intention to quit but only 22 out of the 23 teenage smokers had attempted quitting. Sixty percent of these teenagers had more than three quit attempts.In gen eral, this study captured the complexity of the teenagers' smoking behaviour that could be influenced by multiple factors, including behavioural (e,g, nicotine addiction), personal (e,g, conception of smoking and quitting, curiosity, sensation seeking, knowledge about smoking cessation, stress, maintaining athletic performance, and finance,) and environmental (e,g, socialisation, peer pressure, parental smoking, parental disapproval, and boy- or girlfriend aversion) factors. Conclusions: This study described the complex and multidimensional nature of teenage smoking behaviour.The findings also correspondingly matched the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), therefore suggesting the theory's suitability in elucidating smoking behaviour among the Malaysian teenagers, KEY WORDS smoking, teenagers, smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit smoking INTRODUCTION Adolescence is a crucial time in which a relatively dependent child transforms into a relatively independent adult. During this transitional period, many teenagers often experiment risky behaviours as a proclamation of their autonomy.This risky behaviour includes cigarette smoking, using illicit drugs and cirinking alcohol. (Epps, Manley, & Glynn, 1995; Kulig, & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Substance Abuse, 2005) Experimenting with cigarette smoking is an initial stage of teenagers' smoking behaviour before it becomes established. (Nichter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) This smoking initiation predicts their long-term tobacco use and heavier levels of dependence. (Breslau, & Peterson, 1996; Escobedo, Marcus,Holtzman, & Giovino, 1993; Chen, & Millar, 1998) Their experimenting behaviour may be influenced by various factors including curiosity, peer pressure, parental smoking, sensation seeking, social norms for smoking, and misconception of smoking (e. g. belief that smoking provides benefits, such as coping, sense of belon ging, style, relaxation, and coolness). (Dijk, de Nooijer, Heinrich, & de Vries, 2007; Naing et at. , 2004; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Nichter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997) These factors could cause teenagers to continue smoking.Teenage smoking maintenance is also influenced by nicotine addiction. It has been shown to be substantially significant among teenagers even with low cigarette consumption. (The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Hammond et al. , 2008; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Naing et al. , 2004; DiFranza et at. , 2007; Balch et al. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006) This may be due to a very rapid loss of autonomy over tobacco even with minimal exposure to nicotine in adolescents, as demonstrated by the DANDY study. (DiFranza et al. , 2007; DiFranza et al. , 2002)Consequently, majority of teenage smokers struggle to quit smoking. (Balch et at. , 2004; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & MeNeill, 2006; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000) Thus, smoking behaviour among teenagers is a complex phenomenon, since it is influenced by multiple factors. This complexity requires great understanding of the behaviour from those who are involved in the care of these teenagers. This comprehension would certainly help the care providers to curb teenage smoking, which is a dangerous, addictive and destructive behaviour. US Department of Health and Human Services, 2004) Therefore, many studies have Received on Augtist 28, 2010 and accepted on November 29, 2010 1) Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lutnpur, Malaysia 2) Pusat PERMATApintar Negara, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangl, 43600 Selangor, Malaysia 3) Setapak Health Clinic, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Correspondence to: Hizlinda Tohid (e-mails; [email  protected] com) 2011 Japan International Cultural Exchange Foundation & Japan Health Sciences UniversityTobitJ H, et al. 195 Table 1. Participants' gender, status of smoking and types of interviews TYPES OF SCHOOL MALE GENDER FcEeM. . AALIEE SMOKERS STATUS OF SMOKING NON SMOKERS FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW TYPES OF INTERVIEWS IN DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHOOL 1 URBAN 9 3 9 3 1 3 SCHOOL 2 SEMI-URBAN 7 7 1 SCHOOL 3 RURAL 7 7 1 TOTAL 3 23 3 23 3 3 3 been carried out to examine the phenomenon of teenage smoking. In Malaysia, majority of such studies were quantitative studies. (Naing et al. , 2004; Hoi, & Hong, 2000; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Zulkifli, Rogayah, Razian, & Nyi Nyi, 2001)Nevertheless, studies that qualitatively describe Malaysian teenagers' smoking behaviour are still lacking. This deficiency may affect our understanding of the matter in great depth and holistically. Thus, this study aimed to explore smoking behaviour among Malaysian teenagers related to their smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention, and quit attempts. This information could provide us with better conception about their smoking behaviour, and subse-‘ quently eould help us to identify areas for improvement. METHODSThis study used a multiple case study design, involving 26 teenagers (23 smokers and three former smokers) from three public schools (urban, semi-urban and rural). Data was collected via selfadministered questionnaires, focus group interviews (FGI) and indepth interviews (IDI) over a period of 20 months, between 2008 until 2010. Theoretical framework This study utilised the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to guide the researchers in data collection and analysis. The SCT was also used for ‘analytieal generalisation' in which findings of the study were mapped against the theory.It was chosen as the study's theoretical framework due to its appropriateness and comprehensiveness in capturing a complex phenomenon of eigarette smoking that is influenced by multiple factors. (Baranowski, Perry, & Parc el, 2002) The SCT describes how individuals, environments and health behaviour interact with each other simultaneously (reciprocal determinism). (Baranowski, Perry, & Pareel, 2002) Study population Twenty six teenagers (23 boys and three girls, as shown in Table I) were selected via purposive and snowballing sampling, based on predetermined criteria.The teenage smokers and former smokers were sampled because their experience in cigarette smoking and smoking cessation was crucial for this study. These teenagers were 16 years old Malays, recruited from three different (urban, semiurban and rural) public schools from 2 states in Malaysia. Recruitment of teenagers Teenagers were recruited with the assistance from school counsellors from eaeh sehool. An agreement for no disciplinary action against teenagers who were willing to participate in this study was made with the counsellors prior to the recruitment.The students' smoking status was also eoneealed from other school staff to avoid s tigmatisation. Twelve teenagers who were selected from one of the schools were introdueed to the main researcher during an informal meeting for study briefing (refer to Table 1). The teenagers were invited to participate and were given parental packages, which comprised of an acknowledgement letter to parents, the study's information sheet, and a parental consent form. Subsequently, dates for tbe FGI and IDI were set. The completed parental eonsents forms were eolleeted prior the interviews by the school counsellor.The other 14 teenagers (7 students from each remaining school, as shown in Table 1) were reeruited by sehools' counsellors, who had training in qualitative research and were well informed about the study. Similar method of obtaining eonsent from their parents was carried out by these counsellors. Data collection Three in-depth interviews and three focus-group interviews were carried out (refer to Table 1). Prior to the interviews, all participants were given a brief overv iew of the study and the process of the interviews. Written eonsents from eaeh partieipant were also obtained.They were then required to answer a brief self-administered questionnaire on their socio-demography, smoking status and smoking behaviour (age of initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention and quit attempts). The interviews were conducted in Malay language and eaeh interview lasted less than two hours. A semi-structured interview protocol was used to guide interviewers in questioning the participants. Anti-smoking posters and pamphlets were also used to facilitate discussion. Data analysis During eaeh interview, the conversation was recorded using digital voice recorders.The voice recording was subsequently transeribed into text by using Microsoft Office Word 2007. The transcribed text was reviewed against the audio-recordings for several times until the accuracy of the transcripts was ensured. Any uncertainty during the transcription, assistance from other researeher s was sought to ascertain its accuracy and reliability. (Yin, 2003; Yin, 1994) The transcribed text was then imported into NVIVO 7. The main researcher then analysed the data to identify themes and categories (‘thematie analysis') that would explain patterns of pereeption related to teenagers' smoking behaviour.In order to ensure high reliability of the eoding proeess, tbe coded data was eross-checked by two experts in adolescence health. Kappa was calculated by using the Cohen kappa formula to determine the reliability index, which was maintained above 0. 8. The process of transcription and analysis was repeated for every interview and ‘cross-case conclusion' was drawn between the analyses of eases. Findings of the study were also mapped against the SCT for ‘analytical generalisation'. Ettiical issues, reliability and validity Approval from the Research and Ethic Committee of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia was obtained prior to the study.Authorisation for intervie wing teenagers from the schools was also acquired from the Ministry of Education Malaysia that limited interviewing students who were not sitting for any major examination (i. e. exeept students aged 15 and 17 years old). Apart from these, all of these teenagers and their parents were required to provide written eonsents for their participation. The confidentiality of the participants, e. g. obscuring teenagers' status of smoking from the knowledge of their parents and other sehool staffs, was also guaranteed throughout the study.Finally, medical responsibility of the main researcher in preventing smoking-related illnesses, as she was also a medieal doctor, was realised by offering teenagers consultation for smoking eessation at her clinic. This was done at the end of each interview to prevent any biased answers from the partieipants. Validity and reliability of the study were ensured via a number of methods, ineluding; (1) triangulation of sourees of data (teenagers from three diff erent sehools), as well as methods of data collection 196 What Determines Teenagers' Smokitig Behaviour? Table 2. Smoking behaviour of the teenagers who smokedTEENAGERS WHO SMOKED (N = 23) AGE OF INITIATION (YEARS) NUMBER OF CIGARRETTES SMOKED/DAY STAGE OF CHANGE NUMBER OF QUIT ATTEMPTS FGD(n = 21) IDl(n = 2) TOTAL < 12 5 1 6 > 13 16 1 17 20 2 1 3 PRE COMTEMPLATION 5 1 7 CONTEMPLATION 4 4 PLANNING II 12 0 1 1 1-3 7 1 8 S4 13 1 14 (questionnaire, three FGI and three IDI), (2) self reflexivity in minimising biases that the researchers may bring into the study due to our previous involvement in managing problematic teenagers and chronic smokers, (3) ‘procedural validity' via rephrasing of questions, elarifying of statement and minimal prompting as ecessary,(Fliek, 2009) and (4) inter-coder agreement or reliability index of above 0. 8. RESULTS Twenty three boys and three girls were interviewed (referred to Table 1), in which two of the boys and one of the girls were former smokers . The remaining 23 teenagers were smokers at the time of the interviews. These teenagers' smoking behaviour (age of smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, intention to quit and history of quit attempts) is summarised in Table 2. Age and reasons of smoking initiation Six of the 23 (26%) teenage smokers in this study started smoking during primary school (before the age of 13).The youngest age of smoking initiation was 10 years old. Nevertheless, 74% of these teenage smokers started smoking when they were in the secondary school. Most of the teenagers admitted that curiosity [â€Å"Felt curious to try (smoking)†], sensation seeking [â€Å"Just for fun†], parental modelling of smoking [â€Å"Sinee my father smokes†¦ I always watch him smoking. When he smokes, it looks pleasurable†¦ gratifying†], peer pressure [â€Å"Peer influence†], and misconception of smoking [â€Å"Style (because of smoking). Siyle†] were common factors for them to e xperiment with smoking.The teenagers who started smoking before the age of 13 claimed that curiosity and smoking modelling by parents were their main reasons for experimenting with smoking. This is contrary to those who started smoking at the age of 13 years or older. These teenagers admitted that peer pressure was the major factor for them to start smoking. Cigarette consumption Majority (20/23) of the teenage smokers in this study admitted to smoking every day and 74% of these teenagers smoked not more than 5 cigarettes a day.The teenagers believed that their daily smoking behaviour was mainly due to nicotine addiction in which they described substantial physical (e. g. tiredness, lethargy, flu-like symptoms) and psychological (e. g. slow thinking, depressed, craving) withdrawal symptoms that they experienced during smoking abstinence [â€Å"My brain feels slow†; â€Å"(If I stop smoking) I feel restless. â€Å"]. The daily smokers also admitted to smoking when they were with their friends. They claimed this behaviour could be due to a number of reasons: a) sharing the cost of cigarettes with their friends, thus tend to smoke together, as explained by a teenager: Between 14 of us. we shared RMI per person, we can get 2 big boxes of cigarettes. † b) socialisation, as one teenager noted: â€Å"When we hang around (with friends), we smoke, sis† c) peer pressure, as a teenager claimed: â€Å"When we see our friends smoked, the desire to smoke is too intense. † d) sense of belonging, for example: â€Å"We all belong to a gang who shared our cigarettes together† However, three of the current smokers admitted to smoking only once a week. They stated that they particularly smoked during stressful period [â€Å"Especially when I am doing something. When it's hard then I'll smoke. ]. A few of the teenagers reported that the national anti-tobacco policy, as well as the school regulations had restricted their smoking behaviour. These teenagers admitted to commonly smoke in secluded areas outside of public view, such as in school toilets and stairways of shopping malls. The restrictive environment for public smoking was believed to influence tbeir cigarette consumption. Intention to quit All teenage smokers in this study had the intention to quit smoking. However, 7 of them (30%) did not plan to quit within the next 6 months (in the pre-contemplation stage).Twelve of them (52%) were in the planning stage, but none had set their quit dates. The smokers diselosed that a number of factors could influence tbeir desire to quit, which included: a) impaired athletic performance, as one of the teenagers claimed: â€Å"When (I) sprint†¦ I will hecome breathless† b) boy- or girlfriend aversion, for example: â€Å"Maybe (I get the desire to stop smoking) from my girlfriend. If she said â€Å"If you do not stop smoking, we should break-up†. Huh. (I feel like to quit smoking)† c) parental disapprova l, as noted by one boy: If mother scolded me for smoking, until she cried.. I would feel ? ike I want to quit, but it was temporary only. Afterwards.. I continue smoking† d) concern about health, shown by one of the teenagers' excerpt: â€Å"Smoking can make me feel breathless, sis (that's why I feel like to quit)† e) finaneial problems, as a teenager stated: â€Å"(I) think about my parents, sis. My mother and my father are not wealthy, (when I) think about that, it could (trigger my desire to quit)† Similar motivating factors were also reported by former smokers in this study prior to their successful smoking cessation.Nevertheless, these former smokers admitted that only personalised motivating factors could render them to quit successfully. Their personalised motivators were parental disapproval [â€Å"(Parental disapproval) effective, it's effective. I've stopped smoking. â€Å"], maintaining athletic performance [â€Å"(I) stopped smoking (for athletic p erformance). I got selected (to play football for my district) afterwards†]. and saving money /†/ stopped (smoking) to save money to buy a motorbike†]. Previous quit attempts Almost all (22/23) teenage smokers in this study had attempted smoking cessation prior to the interviews.The teenagers deseribed that quitting was very difficult because of withdrawal symptoms that they experienced during the quit attempts [â€Å"(If I stop smoking) I feel restless†]. Sixty percent of the teenage smokers had actually attempted to quit four times or more. All of the teenagers claimed that they never reeeived any professional helps when they made their attempts to quit in the past. Majority of them declared that they sought their friends' advice on how to quit and among the common methods that they had tried were drinking a lot of water, chewing gums and taking sweets, as one of the teenagers said:Tohid H. et al. 197 â€Å"Usuatty (I) asked my friends how to quit. They a dvised me to drink a tot of minerat water. † DISCUSSION In Malaysia, the mean age of smoking initiation among teenage smokers is between 12-14 years old, (The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Hammond et at. , 2008; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Naing et at. , 2004) whieh is concurrent with the findings of this study. The common reasons for smoking initiation, such as curiosity, peer pressure, and parental smoking, reported by tbe participants in tbis study were similar to otber studies. (Naing et at. 2004; Kbairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004) This study also suggested that curiosity and parental modelling of smoking bebaviour could be teenagers' main reasons for experimenting smoking at younger age (less tban 13 years old). In contrary, peer pressure was found to be a major factor for teenagers wbo started smoking at seeondary sehools. However, the significance of tbese associations should be confirmed by future quantitative studies. Cigarette consumption reporte d by teenagers in this study was found to be lesser tban tbose of Malaysian adults, who averagely smoke between 11 to 14 cigarettes per day. World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2010) Tbis may be due to a number of factors as suggested by tbese teenagers, such as; (a) insufficient fund to purchase cigarettes, (b) ‘occasional' smoking, and (c) restrictive environment for smoking. Nevertheless, underreporting of smoking behaviour by these teenagers may also explain the lower estimated number of cigarettes smoked by them. Tbis is because teenagers have a tendency to report socially desirable behaviour and attitudes. (Hammond et at. , 2008; Klein, Havens, & Carlson, 2005)Insufficient fund to purebase cigarettes were described by some of the teenagers in this study, who claimed that they had to share their pocket money with their peers to buy cigarettes. Tbis is to ensure their continuous supply of cigarettes and to develop bonding among tbe peer s. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Amos, Wiltsbire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Cbalmers, 2000) Tbis practice in turn increases tbe level of acceptance by peers and promote sense of belonging tbat is pertinent to teenagers' psychosocial development. Mermelstein, 2003; Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Nicbter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, c& Chalmers, 2000) However, some teenagers in this study, who had no financial constraint because they had personal income (e. g. from part-time job or significant allowance from parents), admitted to smoke only wben socialising and facing adversities (e. g. relation problems, inability to cope witb academic or part-time job). (Vuekovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Balch et at. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Hoi, 8L Hong, 2000;Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000) These teenagers can be defined as occasional smokers, whose smoking was apparently influenced by peer pressure and tbeir inability to control themselves over smoking or to cope with stress. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000; Patten et al. , 2003; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Mermelstein, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Balch et at. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Hoi, & Hong, 2000) Teenagers' smoking in esponse to hardship shows that smoking is their way of coping since it calms them through nicotine effects on the central nervous system. (Niebter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) In addition, smoking creates a social space in which they can calm down and relieve tension. (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) Apart from financial constraint and occasional smoking, restrietive environment for public smoking was also found to be responsible for tbe partieipants' low cigarette consumption in this study.Therefore, these teenagers commonly smoked in secluded areas outside of public view, sucb as scbool toilets and stairways of shopping malls. These findings are consistent with a number of other studies that have found restrictive environment to be effective in reducing teenage smoking. (Wakefield ct at. , 2000; Lipperman-Kreda, & Grube, 2009; Crawford, Balcb, Mermelstein, & Tobacco Control Network Writing Group, 2002) Majority of teenage smokers bave intention to quit. (Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Krishnan M, 2003; Mermelstein, 2003; Naing ct at. 2004; The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009) Tbis was also found by tbis study, in wbich almost all teenagers who smoked eonsidered to quit smoking sometime in the future. They admitted that a number of factors could trigger tbeir quit intention, wbich include; (a) ath letic performance, (b) boy- or girlfriend aversion, (c) parental disapproval, (d) concern about bealtb, and (e) money saving. Tbese faetors were similarly found to motivate teenagers to eease smoking by previous studies. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Mermelstein, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell,McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Balcb ct al. , 2004) However, tbe teenagers reported tbat these extrinsie motivations were insufficient to keep them from total smoking abstinence. Nevertbeless, excerpts made by tbe former smokers in this study suggested that teenagers would only stop smoking when they are desperate to change due to compelling personal reasons. This finding is supported by McVea et al who found only 'emotionally compelling and inescapable quit reasons' were the most motivating reasons for teenagers to stop smoking. (McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009)Even though majority of tbe teenagers in this study had intention to quit smoking, they did not have any quit ting plans, not even setting their quit dates. These findings are similar to those reported by Mermestein. (Mermelstein, 2003) It is possible tbat the teenagers were; (a) not ready to quit (Balch ct al. , 2004) (e. g. some of the teenagers in the eurrent study would only quit when they experience major life transition, such as after graduation and tnarriage), (b) ambivalent about quitting (MeVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Patten et al. 2003) (e. g. a number of teenagers repetitively answered, â€Å"I am not sure† when they were asked about tbeir plan to quit smoking), and (c) very confident that they could control themselves over smoking (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006) (e. g. a teenager assertively admitted that he could stop stroking on his own without relying on helps from other). The later seems to be related to teenagers' belief tbat ‘quitting is just a matter of will power'. (Amos, Wilts bire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Balcb el at. 2004) After all, these teenagers' ehanees for successful quit attempts would be reduced if they did not have strategic quitting plans. Multiple unsuccessful quit attempts were also reported by many teenagers in tbis study, in which the findings were concurrent with other studies. (World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2010; The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Klein, Havens, & Carlson, 2005; Balch ct at. , 2004) This could be due to several reasons which can be summarised into three categories; (1) nicotine addiction,(Amos,Wiltsbire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Balch et al. , 2004; DiFranza et at. , 2007; DiFranza ct at. , 2007) (2) factors related to environment and situation which could promote teenage smoking (e. g. strong peer pressure, poor support from friends, smoking tnodelling by family members, stress etc, as higbligbted by tbe current study), (Balch et at. , 2004; Crawford, Balch, Mermelstein , & Tobacco Control Network Writing Group, 2002; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Nicbter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997) and (3) personal factors (e. g. oor risk assessment, poor knowledge, poor self efficacy and control, mi,sconception about smoking and quitting, strong belief in unassisted quit attempts etc, as found by this study) (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997; Balcb ct at. , 2004). These tbree categories appear to matcb tbe model of the Social Cognitive Theory. Overall, this study provides beneficial information for future development of interventions of smoking cessation for teenagers. Nevertheless, appropriate eontext which is similar to tbose of this study should be taken into consideration before applying such information since this is a ease study.Interviewing only teenagers aged 16 years old also limits the findings of this study. This is because teenagers at different stages of adolescence (early, middle and late) may bav e different developmental characteristics which may influence their pereeption and attitude towards cigarette smoking. Teenagers from different stages of adolescence should then be included in future studies as differences in tbeir perception, attitude and bebaviour could be explored. CONCLUSION This study bad captured tbe complexity of tbe teenagers' smoking bebaviour that could be influenced by multiple factors.Tbese faetors included behavioural (e. g. nicotine addiction), personal and environmental factors matched the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). These 198 What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? multiple factors should be considered in developing interventions for smoking cessation suited for teenagers. The corresponding mapping of the findings against the SCT also supports the use of the SCT in helping us to comprehensively understand teenage smoking behaviour and to overcome the influential factors. FUNDING This work was funded by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM- GUP-TKS-07-12-097 and FF-127-2008). DECLARATION OF INTERESTS All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would also like to express gratitude to the Ministry of Education Malaysia, the Ministry of Health Malaysia and the school counsellors who had helped us throughout the study. REFERENCES Amos A. Wiltshire S, Haw S. McNeill A. (2006). Ambivalence and uncertainty: experiences and altitudes towards addiction and smoking cessation in the mid-to-late teens. Heatiti Educ Re. s. 21. 181-191. doi:l0. 1093/her/cyh054 Baick GI.Tworek C, Barker DC. Sasso B. Mermelstein R. Glovino GA. et at. (2004). Opportunities for youth stnoking cessation: findings from a national focus group . study. Nicotine Tob Res. 6. 9-17. doi:l0. 1080/1462200310001650812 Baranowski T. Perry C. Parcel G. (2002). How individuals, environments and health behavior interact. In K. Glanz. B. K. Rimer and F. M. Lewis (Eds. ), hieuttti tiettavior and tieattti education 3rd ed. ( pp. 165-184). Jossey-Bass Inc Pub. Breslau N. Peterson EL. (1996). Smoking cessation in young adults: age at initiation of cigarette smoking and other suspected influences.Am J Public t-teatttt. 86, 214-220. Retrieved from http://ajph. aphapublications. Org/cgi/reprint/86/2/2l4. pdf Chen J. Millar WJ. (1998). Age of smoking initiation: implications for quitting, tiealttt Rep, 9. 39-46. (Eng); 39. Retrieved from http://www. statcan. gc. ca/studies-etudes/82- 003/archive/1998/3685-eng. pdf Crawford MA. Balch GI. Mermelstein R, Tobacco Control Network Writing Group. (2002). Responses to tobacco control policies among youth. Tob Control. 11. 14-19. Retrieved from http://www. bvsde. paho. org/bvsacd/cd26/tc/vl In 1/14. df Curry SJ. Mermelstein RJ, Sporer AK. (2009). Therapy for specific problems: youth tobacco cessation. Annu Rev Psyctwt. 60. 229-255. doi:10. 1146/annurev. psych. 60. l 10707. 163659 DiFranza JR. Savageau JA. Fletcher K, O'Loughlin J. Pbert L. Ockene JK. et at. (2007). Sy mptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: the Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youth-2 study. Arcii Pediatr Adotesc Med. 161, 704-710. doi:IO. IOOI/archpedi. 161. 7. 704 DiFranza JR. Savageau JA. Fletcher K. Ockene JK. Rigotti NA. McNeill AD. t al. (2002). Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: the DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) study. Arcti Pediatr Adote. sc tvied, 156. 397-403. Retrieved from http://archpedi. amaassn. org/cgi/content/full/l56/4/397 DiFranza JR. Savageau JA. Fletcher K. Pbert L, O'Loughlin J, McNeill AD. et al. (2007). Susceptibility to nicotine dependence: the Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youth 2 study. Pediatrics, 120, e974-e983. doi:IO. I542/peds. 2007- 0027 Dijk F. de Nooijer J.Heinrich E. de Vries H. (2007). Adolescents† view on smoking, quitting and health education. Heattti Educ. 107. 114-125. doi:IO. 1108/09654280710731539 Epps R P. Manley MW. Glynn TJ. (1995). Tobacco use among adolescents. Strategies for prevention. Pediatr Clin North Am, 42, 389-402. E. scobedo LG. Marcus SE. Holtzman D, Giovino GA. (1993). Sports participation, age at smoking initiation, and the risk of smoking among US high school students. J Am Med Assoc, 269, 1391-1395. Retrieved from http://jama. ama-assn. org/cgi/reprint/ 269/11/1391 Flick U. Ed. ). (2009). An tntroduction to Quatitative Researcti. Sage Publications Ltd. Hammond D, Kin F. Prohmmo A, Kungskulniti N, Lian TY, Sharma SK. et at. (2008). Patterns of smoking among adolescents in Malaysia and Thailand: findings from the International Tobaeco Control Southeast Asia survey. Asia-Pacific J Public Healtti, 20. 193-203. doi:IO. 1177/1010539508317572 Hoi T. Hong L. (2000). Smoking among students in a rural secondary school. J Univ Mataya Med Cent. 5, 85-88. Retrieved from tutp:lltnyais. fst(ttn. um. edu. myl603HI t/Teti_Kot

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Heat and mass transfer calculation for carbon capture pilot plant - Assignment Example The calculations show that with increase in the flow rate of both streams the temperature drop of the hot stream increased steadily. On the other hand, the temperature rise of the cold stream decreased substantially. The clear jacket allowed the observation that the jacket was continuously full at all times and because neither stream had any color, it was not possible to notice whether the turbulence of the two streams changed at all. In future experiments it might be a good idea to introduce a small stream of dye into both streams to observe turbulence. However, this would lead to a change in the mass flow rate and more importantly in the specific heat capacity, which would have to be accounted for in subsequent calculations. Important findings of this experiment are that the thermal efficiency of the plate and frame heat exchanger is better than that of the concentric tube heat exchanger and secondly, with the increase in flow rate the efficiency improved only marginally. This is perhaps because with the multiple pass arrangement where the two streams changed direction frequently an element of turbulence was already present that did not change much with the change in flow rates. However, the observations taken are too few to arrive at this conclusion with confidence. Important findings of this experiment are that the thermal efficiency of the plate and frame heat exchanger is comparable to that of the concentric tube heat exchanger but lower than that of the plate and frame heat exchanger. Secondly, with the increase in flow rate of the cold stream the efficiency improved marginally. In this case again, the conclusion can be that the design allows for introducing greater turbulence in the shell-side stream through the baffles

Discussion of Portfolio Theory Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Discussion of Portfolio Theory - Coursework Example Corporate investors use the same concept when they build up a portfolio. The above discussion demonstrates that asset is a weight in the portfolio. An investor never buys all securities of the financial market; rather selects a combination of securities. This is when the concept of risk arises. Thus, portfolio theory has two important parameters: weight of an asset in the portfolio and its risk. The concept risk relates to the return on investment. Let us consider a single stock A. The stock A has predicted returns for different economic states as well as the probability of occurring these states. Theoretically three states are considered: boom, average, and recession. Using formulas, one can calculate expected return, E (rA), and risk of the return of the stock A. The risk of return is expressed through standard deviation ÏÆ', and in percentage. A portfolio consists of multiple financial instruments, each of them with specific predicted returns. Let us now say, we have three securi ties in a portfolio: stock B, stock C, and stock D. The portfolio return will be E (r portfolio) = WB x E (rB) + WC x E (rC) + WD x E (rD). The value of E (r Portfolio) will compensate the risk of each single security.A portfolio consists of Gold Stock, Auto Stock with relative weight 75 % and 25 %. The return is shown below.: Convert predicted returns of two stocks to the return of one average stock. The formula is Average predicted return = Weight of Auto stock x Predicted return + Weight of Gold stock x Predicted return.

Acid and magnesium Essay Example for Free

Acid and magnesium Essay B unit for rate constant is not definite, because I am not certain what order the reaction is So Rate = 0. 0490 [HCl] 1. 90 This shows the rate is very dependent on the [HCl], the concentration against time is illustrated in graph 8. The reaction for H2SO4 is: H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + Mg SO4 (aq) Graph 4 is Rate against [H2SO4]. I found the line of best fit is roughly a straight line. Graph 5, I plot Rage against [H2SO4] 2 and found the line of best fit is a curve. N. B the error bars shows the uncertainty is higher than I purposed Using the log method again, I found the line is y = 1. 33x 0. 889 So overall order is 1. 33 and k is 0. 129 So Rate = 0. 129 [H2SO4] 1. 33 However, the order of a reaction must be a integer, because number of particles are discrete. So the order I obtain must be an average order of the reaction. From graph 3 and 6, the points are not fitted with the line of best fit that means the gradient is not constant, hence the order is not constant throughout the reaction. The gradient of the first few points is big and decrease hence the order is high at the beginning, and decrease as the reaction proceeds. Integrated Rate Laws. Using the integrated Rate Laws, I can see how [acid] varies with time. I assume [HCl] is second order and [H2SO4] is first order. F According to the graph, the reactions seems stop after 50seconds, which is the same results in table 4. However, these two graphs are only estimations, because I have to assume the order of the reaction in the first place. For Experiment 2: HCL and Mg Using table 6, I plotted graph   and Mg Using table 7, I plotted graph 8, do some calculation as above, line of best fit is y = -1800x + 1. 71 EA= 18008. 31=15000j=+15kJ According to the rate equation, Rate = k[Acid] a, a would affect the rate, and I used Ln K for the calculation above, where I assume a is a constant. My results from experiment 1 shows that the order may have changed as concentration changes , according to graph 1 and 2, because the rate slowing down. Just look at the last two results on graph 1 and 2, it seems the order has decrease to zero, because the line of best fit is a horizontal line. This can due to the experiment error I described in page 12. Same case applied sulphuric acid, the order may has slow down as concentration increases. For experiment 3 Enthalpy HCl and Mg Q=cmT = specific heat capacity of solution x mass of the solution x temperature change. Having work out the enthalpy change for the whole reaction, the energy liberated during 20% of the reaction can be calculated. Table 11 Change of temperature during the 20% of the reaction for HCl and Mg Concentration/ moldm-3 Volume/ cm3 Mole Energy liberated during the 20% reaction/j Change in Temp/ Table 12 Change of temperature during the 20% of the reaction for H2SO4 and Mg Concentration/ moldm-3 Volume/ cm3 Mole Energy liberated during the 20% reaction/j Change in Temp/ oThe material below is reference to Chemistry in Context, it talks about the effect of temperature rise(below). From the kinetic theory, we can predict the relative increase in number of collisions when the temperature rises by 10K. The kinetic energy of a particle is proportional to its absolute temperature: 1/2mvi ? T But the mass of a given particle remains constant Vi ? T Therefore Vi 1 = T1 Vi 2 T2 Where V1 is the velocity at temperature T1, and V2 is the velocity at temperature T2. Now, suppose that the average speed of a particle is V at 300K. We can work the average speed at 310K by using the equation. This therefore shows that the average speed at 310K is only 1. 016 times greater than that at 300K i. e. it has only increased by 1. 6%. So as the calculation above, I can work out the increase in speed of particles, using the temperature change in table 12 and 13. Temperature in the solution is 24 oc, as I measured. Table 14 % increase in velocity of the particles during the reaction for HCl and Mg Concentration/ moldm-3 Temp before(T1)/ oc Temp after(T2)/ oc T2/T1 % increase in V. Table 15 % increase in velocity of the particles during the reaction for H2SO4 and Mg, Concentration/ moldm-3 Temp before(T1)/ oc Temp after(T2)/ oc T2/T1 % increase in V Entropy. The entropy of this reaction also tell us how likely the reaction would occur. HCl and Mg 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + MgCl2 (aq) ?Stotal=? Ssurrouding+ ? Ssystem ?Ssurrouding= -? H/T, (T=298K, room temp) and we worked out ? H before, -1. 17kJ, Ssurr = +3. 93 Jmol-1K-1 ?Ssystem=Product Reactant , values are obtained from the databook, H2 (65. 32)+MgCl2 (89. 6)- 2(H+(0)+Cl-(56. 5))-Mg(32. 7)=+74. 5 Jmol-1K-1 ?Stotal= +78. 43 Jmol-1K-1 We can deduced that the reaction would happen spontaneously in 298K H2SO4 and Mg, H2SO4 (aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + Mg SO4(aq) Same calculation as above, ? Stotal=? Ssurrouding+ ? Ssystem ?Ssurr=+3. 79 Jmol-1K-1 ?Ssys= Mg SO4 (91. 6) + H2 (65. 32) Mg(32. 7) H2SO4 (0+ 20. 1)=+169. 2 Jmol-1K-1 ?Stotal= +173 Jmol-1K-1 Confidently, we can deduced that the two reaction would happen spontaneously in 298K So far, for HCl and Mg, I have found Rate = 0. 0490 [HCl] 1. 90 EA =+16. 6kJ ?H= 1. 17kJ per mole ?Stotal= +78. 43 Jmol-1K-1 For H2SO4 and Mg, Rate = 0. 129 [H2SO4] 1. 33 EA= +15kJ ?H= 1. 30kJ per mole ?Stotal= +173 Jmol-1K-1 The likelihood of the reaction The reaction is very likely to happen. This is because ? Stotal is positive, suggest spontaneous reaction and its =+16. 6kJ is not very high. When the concentration increases, the temperature increases as in graph 10, hence a increase in speed of particles (graph 12), and 0. 5xMxv2 is KE, so KE increase by the square of v, which is a big gain in energy, so the activation energy curve is shifted to the right hand said and more particles has the KE to go over the energy barrier. This means the higher the concentration the higher increase in temperature, so higher velocity of particles, higher KE, hence more particles have enough energy to complete the reaction, so more likely the reaction would happen. Difference in rate. Two acids are ionic Ionic equation for acid and Mg: 2H+(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + Mg2+(aq) H2SO4 is dibasic and HCl is monobasic. They are all strong acid, means the H+ would dissociated fully. H2SO4 has 2 acid protons and HCl only has 1 acid proton. So 0. 1mol wrt [HCl], is 0. 1mol wrt [H+], and 0. 1mol wrt [H2SO4] and 0. 2mol wrt [H+]. The rate for sulphuric acid ought to be higher than hydrochloric acid, because the more the acid proton, the quicker the acid proton dissociate. However, when we consider about the spectator ions, SO42+ and Cl-, there is a significant difference in size, Cl- has ionic radius of 0. 180nm, S8+ has ionic radius of 0. 102nm, covalent radius of 0. 102nm, and O2+ has ionic radius of 0. 140nm and covalent radius 0. 073nm. For SO42+ overall is roughly about 0. 140 0. 103 0. 101 0. 140 the length of SO42+ is about 0. 140 + 0. 102 + 0. 102 = 0. 344 is about 2 times bigger the Cl ions. The atomic weight of SO4 is 32 + 164 = 96, and Cl is 35. SO4 is 2. 7 times heavier. From these evidence, I can suggest that during the collision, the spectator ions SO4 and Cl affect the rate of reaction as well. The SO4 ion is bigger than the Cl, so the sulphuric acid reaction, the SO4 slows down the rate of collision because of its size. But for hydrochloric aicd reaction, the Cl is relatively small and lighter, so the collision is easier to happen, hence a quicker rate of reaction.   Keith Li 111 1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

The Search for Spiritual Identity in Adolescents Essay Example for Free

The Search for Spiritual Identity in Adolescents Essay It’s a puzzle with us trying to find the right fit, size and shape where the pieces will fit to make us whole. So we begin by growing, and developing, and learning and moving, and thinking and tasting, and touching and testing, and hugging and loving! We go through different stages of growth and growing, and learning and maturing and changing and aging and ultimately death. This writer believes we are searching for our spiritual identity. The NIV Bible says that the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being. Man’s spiritual identity comes from God! Jesus was about twelve years old according to the NIV Bible when he began his quest for spiritual identity. Luke 2:49 reads: Why were you searching for me? he asked. Didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers house? After a female egg becomes fertilized by a male sperm it becomes a zygote. This living organism is a product of each parent’s chromosomes. This zygote begins a two week period of rapid cell division which eventually becomes an embryo. Eventually, this embryo will become a living being which was produced and created by its two parents. This child’s physical identity comes from his parents! I use the term parent’s very loosely because I am aware that his identity comes from his bloodline or his genes. I am making a point. By far the most provocative theory of identity development is Erik Erikson’s. It was Erikson who first understood how central questions about identity are to understanding adolescent development. Erikson’s fifth developmental stage (identity versus identity confusion) says during this time adolescents (between the ages of eleven to young adult hood) are faced with who they are, what they are all about and where they are going. Erikson framed the best of maturity in the ego identity of what he called the moral-ethical, spiritual human. This human is one with a horizontal, earthly identity and a vertical, transcendent identity, meaning an identity both religious and spiritual that embraces non-physical manifestation. As adolescents search for their spiritual identity researchers have found that various aspects of religion are linked to positive outcomes in adolescents. Religion has been proven to play a role in adolescent’s health and whether or not they engage in problem behaviors (Cotton amp; others, 2006). For example, in a recent national random sample of 2000 11-18 year olds, those who were higher in religiosity were less likely to smoke, drink alcohol, use marijuana, not be truant in school, not engage in delinquent behavior and not be depressed as compared to their counterparts with lower religiosity (Sinha, Cnaan, amp; Gelles, 2006). The initiator of the Baha†i movement, Baha†Ã¢â‚¬ u â€Å"llah in 1863 believed that there were seven mystical stages to human development and he believed as does most Muslims today that human development is closely linked to religious development. He referred to those stages as â€Å"The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys†. They are: * The Valley of Search * The Valley of Love * The Valley of Knowledge * The Valley of Unity * The Valley of Contentment * The Valley of Wonderment * The Valley of the True Poverty and Absolute Nothingness He believed that one has not truly developed unless he has entered in or experienced each of hese stages. During my years of adolescence I was considered somewhat of a spoiled child. My mother sent me to a modeling school to become a trained runway model. By the time I was 13 I have performed in more than 100 different fashion shows in and around Michigan, Illinois and New York. Needless to say my environment consisted of my peers b eing much older than myself. I was constantly traveling and partying and dating older men. When I would return home I would become angry with my mother because she forced me to attend church. Church was always the center of our home. My mother was the secretary at our church for over forty years so we were always there. It seemed as if we were preparing our clothes for church 7 days in advance. So I ravished the opportunity to be out of town or on a modeling assignment on Sundays. When were taught to pray daily, morning, noon and night. My mother always told us the story of Daniel in the bible who prayed three times a day every day. And that is what she expected of us. I was a typical teenager who thought it was a waste of time. By the time I was 16 years old I became pregnant. My worst nightmare had come true. I remember my mother telling us that we should always pray. I began to pray daily asking God to show me how to tell my mother that I had ruined my life. I can almost remember the calm that would come over me whenever I was in prayer. Soon I realized that if God could listen to me and love me and allow that peace to come over me that there really was a God, an everlasting father and a true friend. I got the courage to talk to my mother and tell her how sorry I was and confess to God about the things that I had done knowing that they were not His will. This was the beginning of my transformation. My search had just begun. This began to give me answers to all of my seeking and questioning of myself, my world, my purpose. This bought purpose and stability into my life. Today I can say that I am a Minister of the Gospel and I do not believe I would be where I am not had not I gone through the experience of searching, seeking and finding during my adolescent and young adult years. This is just my story, no theory, just the facts. As man seeks and searches for his spiritual identity his mortality also surfaces. The NIV Bible allows us a peek into ourselves in I Corinthians 13:12, for now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully. As we are seeking to understand adolescent behavior we must remember that they are seeking and searching for who they are and whose they are. During this search they shall encounter experiences that they may not understand, they may even become people that you don’t understand, but with patience, love, guidance, education and prayer you can help them become the person they are looking for and want to become. Sometimes we as parents forget that our children not only need to be educated in the ways of the world and how to become successful healthy, productive adults but they also need to be taught about their spirit man. That part of them they cannot see but they can project in their life style. The part of them that no one else can even know or understand. The loving giving life that was breathed into them by the lover of their soul. The concept of a higher being. The ability to know and to understand that they have to answer to someone greater than themselves. The knowledge of understanding that life does not just revolve around them. This seeking and searching has a beginning but should never have an end. James Fowler believed that one had to go through 6 stages of Faith in order to find their own spiritual identity. | Stage| Description| Simplified version by M. Scott Peck| Stage 1| Intuitive-Projective| This is the stage of preschool children in which fantasy and reality often get mixed together. However, during this stage, our most basic ideas about God are usually picked up from our parents and/or society. | I. Chaotic-Antisocial| People stuck at this stage are usually self-centered and often find themselves in trouble due to their unprincipled living. If they do end up converting to the next stage, it often occurs in a very dramatic way. | Stage 2| Mythic-Literal| When children become school-age, they start understanding the world in more logical ways. They generally accept the stories told to them by their faith community but tend to understand them in very literal ways. [A few people remain in this stage through adulthood. ]| | | Stage 3| Synthetic-Conventional| Most people move on to this stage as teenagers. At this point, their life has grown to include several different social circles and there is a need to pull it all together. When this happens, a person usually adopts some sort of all-encompassing belief system. However, at this stage, people tend to have a hard time seeing outside their box and dont recognize that they are inside a belief system. At this stage, authority is usually placed in individuals or groups that represent ones beliefs. [This is the stage in which many people remain. ]| II. Formal-Institutional| At this stage people rely on some sort of institution (such as a church) to give them stability. They become attached to the forms of their religion and get extremely upset when these are called into question. Stage 4| Individuative-Reflective| This is the tough stage, often begun in young adulthood, when people start seeing outside the box and realizing that there are other boxes. They begin to critically examine their beliefs on their own and often become disillusioned with their former faith. Ironically, the Stage 3 people usually think that Stage 4 people have become backsliders when in reality they have actually moved forward. | III. Skeptic-Individual| Those who break out of the previous stage usually do so when they start seriously questioning things on their own. A lot of the time, this stage ends up being very non-religious and some people stay in it permanently| Stage 5| Conjunctive Faith| It is rare for people to reach this stage before mid-life. This is the point when people begin to realize the limits of logic and start to accept the paradoxes in life. They begin to see life as a mystery and often return to sacred stories and symbols but this time without being stuck in a theological box. | IV. Mystical-Communal| People who reach this stage start to realize that there is truth to be found in both the previous two stages and that life can be paradoxical and full of mystery.

Detailed Analysis Of John Lewis Partnership Commerce Essay

Detailed Analysis Of John Lewis Partnership Commerce Essay The following report will provide a detailed analysis of John Lewis Partnership. The retailer has been very successful in the UK and has performed extremely well in spite of more negative financial issues and other dynamics impacting upon the retail sector at large, predominantly in light of declining consumer income, technological advances such as the internet and increased competition. The reason the company was able to achieve these was because of their commitment towards their clients in providing innovative solutions as well as improved awareness of customer needs and the significance of creating a reliable customer base which ensures positive word-of-mouth and the company has achieved this due to its commitment to providing innovative solutions to clients as well as a heightened awareness of customer needs and further recommendations to increase new revenue streams through an appropriate CRM system in place. Therefore, the reports provides an evaluation of the companys current marketing environment assessing how the external factors impact the retail sector largely and specifically on the strategies that John Lewis chooses to adopt. The report will also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses as well as the threats and opportunities that the company is presented with and how best it can achieve a match with its own internal capabilities to the dynamics at play. The report will also look at how the John Lewis brand and customer proposition is placed in the UK market in comparison to other competitors, with an attempt to provide understanding in to how the company gains advantage through differentiation from other competitors, essentially highlighting how the company implements a differentiated strategy which allows it to maintain advantage. At the same time, the analysis has drawn attention to how the uncertainty which prevails and the continuous rate of change in the external market highlights the implications of continuous observation and continuous re-evaluation of the strategic options applied. Ultimately, the aim is to provide recommendations as to how the company can increase the probability of its advantage over the longer term. The John Lewis Partnerships 81,000 Partners own the leading UK retail businesses John Lewis and Waitrose. Our founders vision of a successful business powered by its people and its principles defines our unique company today. The profits and benefits created by our success are shared by all our Partners (John Lewis, 2012). Write the report as if you were working for an external management consultancy firm, reporting to the Board of Directors of your chosen company. The report should contain sections that address ALL of the main aspects of the module syllabus: that is the report should cover both strategic analysis (internal and external) and strategy formulation. It is essential that in undertaking your research and writing your report you make appropriate use of the strategic management tools and models to conduct internal and external strategic analysis and strategy formulation that you have encountered in this module. Credit will be given for analysis, evaluation and synthesis, and the appropriate selection and use of strategic management tools and models. 2.0 Introduction This report will discuss the strategic management tools demonstrating skills of analysis evaluation and synthesis of John Lewis. The report includes strategic analysis and an External Environmental analysis. The report also covers the strategy formulation in which the SWOT analysis and BCG Matrix will be discussed. John Lewis Partnership plc is one of the UKs top ten retail businesses. They operate amongst 2 sectors known as John Lewis and Waitrose. The company offers food as well as household products i.e. baked foods, fresh fruit veg, wines, household items, furniture, electronic items etc. The company functions in a chain of 287 Waitrose supermarkets, 39 John Lewis shops that include 30 departmental stores and 8 of them at home John Lewis stores. The company operates throughout the UK and is headquartered in London, they sell their products through retail stores, catalogues, and websites. The companys strategic focus is to accomplish its non-core business strategies through partnership with other firms. There are around 81,000 employees working in John Lewis stores who are partners in the business, they have a share in the companys profits and are given the opportunity to participate in the companys progress and growth. This is their unique source of competitive advantage as it encourages staff loyalty through being business partners (John Lewis 2012) 3.0 Strategic analysis 3.1 Mission statement The mission of an organisation highlights the broad directions they need to follow and provides a brief summary of the values and reasons that lie behind it (Lynch 2012). Like other organisations John Lewis also have a mission statement, it highlights their reputation established through their ownership structure as it is unique and they are very successful in being a profitable business. John Lewis aim to keep their staff satisfied so that their business can be a success. Their strategy is based on three key elements partners, customers and profit. (Refer to appendix 1) to see their full mission statement. 4.0 External Environmental analysis 4.1 PESTEL Analysis The PESTEL analysis examines the macro-environment in which the business exists in. It is a helpful tool for understanding market growth or decline as well as the position, potential and the direction for business. It is also used for evaluating the Political, Economic, Social Technological, Environmental and Legal factors that a business operates in. The Political factors discuss government regulations such as employment laws, environmental regulations, tax policy and political stability. The Economic factors affect the cost of capital and purchasing power of an organisation. These factors also include economic growth, interest rates and inflation. The Social factors impact customers needs, potential market size such as John Lewiss goods and services, population growth and age demographics. Technological factors of John Lewis will discuss barriers to entry, making or buying decisions, investment and innovation and the technological change. Environmental factors include weather, clim ate and climate change. Climate change affects how John Lewis operates and the products they offer. Lastly Legal Factors include discrimination law, employment law and health and safety law. These factors can affect the way John Lewis operate their costs and the demand for their products. 4.2 Macro- environmental Factors It is commonly known, that those prevailing in the external environment of any firm shall have a significant influence in terms of decision making in the strategic options. Such analysis is known as PESTEL analysis and usually suggested as the first stage in the strategic planning process (Lynch, 2006). As Johnson et al (2008, pg.56) rightly declared, The key drivers for change are environmental factors that are likely to have a high impact on the success or failure of strategy. (Refer to appendix 2) to see the PESTEL analysis for John Lewis. It can be concluded that each factor of the PESTEL has had an effect on John Lewiss actions, some of them are now stated in their mission statement. Previous factors are used to analyse different factors, furthermore, these factors can give a prediction for the future, so can be quiet effective if they are applied correctly. There are also some restrictions in this model, e.g. when the procedure of the checklist is applied to John Lewis it may be tough. The emergent corporate strategies may well comment that the future is so uncertain that prediction is useless (Lynch 2012 page 84), however, some may still give words of caution but still predict the future. The PESTEL analysis isnt the only framework that John Lewis take into consideration, their organisation has many other internal and external factors that also have an effect on the strategy formulation, this is why Porters five Forces framework is applied. The PESTEL analysis has a lot of information but yet doesnt offer a detailed analysis of the business. Porters Five Forces (1985) observes factors that have an impact on competition in the organisation. 4.3 Strategic Options The external analysis undertaken has underlined how the focus and the landscape of the UK retail sector has changed dramatically over the last decade or so. Such developments clearly present both threats, primarily from new entrants and modes of distribution, as well as opportunities such as the increasing utilisation of technology within the current offering to customers. As Johnson et al (2008, pg.3) highlights, strategy is about exploiting the strategic capability of an organisation, in terms of its resources and competences, to provide competitive advantage and/or yield new opportunities. However, many competitors in the retail sector at large have managed to expand into other range of products as well as expanding internationally, John Lewis seems to have adopted a more thoughtful approach and stayed loyal to its customers as well as confident in terms of its offering to the market. At the same time it has also developed a wide range of products as a lower price range to attract more customers across a wider range of segments in society. In times of economic uncertainty this also appears to be a sensible strategy in terms of situations where its loyal customer base may be experiencing declines in disposable income, thus enabling John Lewis to maintain their business through customers trading down to less expensive ranges in store. The recent introduction for its Essential Waitrose Range in 2009 was both a reaction to external events including activities of competitors but was viewed as an effective strategy highlighting the companys attention to external research as well as its innovative approach to dealing with such negative events. Furthermore, Porter put forward the idea that there were three generic strategies; cost leadership strategy, differentiation strategy and the focus strategy, which companies follow. It is clear that John Lewis has embraced a combination of these, but essentially, differentiation has remained key to its business model which positions more favourably when compared to other competitors, particularly given the range and extent of the goods and services it provides as well as its highly effective branding and promotional events which appeal directly to customers and incite purchase. Its decision to introduce its Essentials range within its Waitrose stores may have been considered by some as an indication it was lowering its standards, but on the contrary, despite offering a cheaper alternative, quality remained key which ultimately implied that its position in the market would not be negotiated. 4.4 Porters Five Forces Porters Five Forces framework highlights that the environment John Lewis is competing in is constantly changing, (refer to appendix 5). In this model it is believed that customers dont have more importance than any other aspect, however Aker, Baker and Harvey Jones argue that customers are more important than any other aspect of strategy development (Lynch 2012). Porters Five Forces of competition (1985) is a common tool often applied within the strategic management process to firms across several sectors. It is similar to the PESTLE analysis as it takes a predominantly external perspective of the firm within its given industry looking at how it is positioned against other competitors in the same sector. Recently many have criticised the ensuring importance of the framework given the changes that have risen, particularly with regard to the diversification of business which has ultimately created blurring across many previously distinct sectors. This is emphasized by the supermarkets entering into the clothing and electronics sector for example, as well as retailers including John Lewis expanding into financial services through insurance and credit facilities to customers. Barney (1995) and Henry (2008) underlined how Porters model is more helpful when it is applied at a strategic business unit level rather than at higher levels of industry analysis such as the sector at large as it cannot be expected that all competitors will be competing against one another. This tool is also believed to be useful in terms of assessing a companys strengths and weaknesses in light of how it stacks up against competition. As Barney (1995, pg.49) highlights, A complete understanding of sources of competitive advantage requires the analysis of a firms internal strengths and weaknesses as well. The importance of integrating internal with environmental analyses can be seen when evaluating the sources of competitive advantage of many firms. Looking at Porters five forces of competition, it is clear that John Lewis has attempted to not to just react to the external dynamics and actions of competitors, but actively be a step ahead. It has constantly adapted its business model, such as the introduction of store cards, its online offering and the Waitrose Essentials range in order to provide its business with a more appropriate fit to the market in line with Mintzbergs (1994) theory. A major element of its strategy however, is its reputation, branding and subsequent positioning in the market and how consumers view the business in its entirety. It has remained rather committed to its original proposition and further enhanced its appeal through appropriate branding and its reputation for quality and enhanced service to customers. 5.0 Internal Resource analysis 5.1 Value analysis chain The term Value Chain was used by Michael Porter (1985), the purpose of the value chain is to analyse the activities that are performed by the business, linking them to the competitive position. It also evaluates the particular activities to see which add value to the businesses products or services (quickmba 1999-2010) While many critics and leading authorities dispute the validity of Porters earlier theories, many of his ideas do still appear useful from the perspective of strategic analysis, particularly the notion of the value chain. Ultimately, it is within the value chain which John Lewis has created that it has succeeded in terms of sustaining advantage in its market sector. It has created efficiencies and synergies through the interrelationships within (Mintzberg and Ghoshal, 2003). Value Chain Analysis which is often compared to the RBV of the firm as it looks to both internal and external dynamics impacting an organisation. In recent years importance has also been given to joint ventures, collaborations and relationships which add value to the companys positioning. Elements of the chain such as HR which were previously considered as supporting elements are now viewed as core and this is demonstrated by John Lewis in terms of its commitment to and investment in staff. By enhancing the quality of its internal resources it can achieve distinctive competencies which are difficult to emulate by other competitors (Teece et al, 1997; Terwiesch and Ulrich, 2009). As Porter (1985, pg.36) emphasises, the way it performs individual activities are a reflection of its history, its strategy, its approach to implementing its strategy, and the underlying economics of the activities themselves. 6.0 Strategy formulation 6.1 SWOT Analysis: John Lewis Partnership A SWOT analysis is a useful tool for understanding and decision-making, businesses such as John Lewis use this tool in all sorts of situations, a SWOT summarizes the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. This framework covers a crucial part of the strategic planning process a scan of the internal and external environment. Strength, Weaknesses are considered to be internal to the business whereas, Opportunities and Threats are part of the external environment. Looking at the SWOT analysis (refer to appendix 6) it can be concluded that John Lewis take this tool into consideration when making business decisions based on their customers. However, John Lewis need to expand their target audience because at the moment they are only targeting an older audience need to improve the diagnostic power of a SWOT analysis is to define the elements from a customer perspective rather than the organizational point of view. (Baker 2007, pg.267). By doing this they will generate a higher profit margin. If john Lewis wants to stay ahead of their competition they need focus on their weaknesses such as they need to ensure their prices are similar to their competitors. Also John Lewis need to focus on threats the business may have to face but they can avoid such matters by acting upon the threat before it occurs. Although the SWOT analysis tool is useful to businesses when making decisions, it has been criticized due to its simplicity and possible misleading approach to strategic analysis. This is because companies have failed to follow a few simple procedures. The SWOT analysis is a focused methodology (Baker 2007), therefore, when John Lewis the using this tool they need to ensure they are able to follow correct procedures of this tool to ensure they are able to achieve success. 6.2 BCG Growth-share Matrix The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) growth-share matrix was developed by Bruce Henderson, founder of BCG, in the late 1960s (Baker 2007, pg.125). The BCG Matrix is a simple tool used to assess a companys position in terms of its product range. It simplifies how a companys thinks about the products and services and makes decisions about which it should keep and let go and which products to invest in further. It provides a useful way of seeing the opportunities that are open to the company and also helps to consider how the company can maximise the profits in the future. Below is the BCG Matrix for John Lewis, highlighting where in the market the different departments of John Lewis are positioned. John Lewis was voted Britains best retailer in 2009 and have won awards House Beautiful Awards 2008: Online Home Retailer of the Year Gold Award (washerhelp 2012), making them leaders in departments such as House and Garden, Electrical Appliances, Fashion, Gifts and Toys. They now have a high growth and a high market share in this segment, thus putting them in the star category. Further, technology and baby departments are between the star and question mark category this could be due to high growth and market share or high growth and low market share as they are faced with high demands but have low returns. Moving on to the sport department as it is in the cash cow category, as a markets it isnt growing but yet the market share for the products is high. Looking at the final category it can be said that John Lewis are safe as there isnt any products in the dog category. 7.0 conclusion Overall, the company has responded admirably to the changing dynamics impacting upon its market and customers, it is also clear that going forward, more challenges and threats shall be presented to it, particularly given persistent uncertainty relating to the global economy as consumer confidence within the UK. It would appear that in addition to a thorough and consistent approach to its markets in relation to external analysis of those factors deemed to impact most significantly; the company also adopts an internal approach, evaluating its inherent resources and competencies within the business. In line with the resource based view of the firm (Barney, 1991) and subsequent research by other authors such as Grant (2005), this analysis is often viewed as a more appropriate approach to the task of strategic management as ultimately, organisations have much more control over their internal resources than external market variables. Such an approach enables companies to incite the innovat ion process and thus create change in the wider environment as well as improvements to its value chain. This appears to be exactly what John Lewis has done to date through its expansion into other areas, as well as extending its range to customers through on-line facilities as well as credit, insurance etc. Threat of New Entrants This is considered to be fairly low for John Lewis given the original capital investment required as well as the regulations governing the market. At the same time, the fact that discount retailers and the supermarkets who benefit from vast scale economies can offer many of the same goods at substantially lower prices, is a concern and is perhaps indicative of why many retailers such as John Lewis now provide an electronic service in addition to their store offering. More entrants to the online space does seem inevitable though may become increasingly difficult given the variety currently in existence as well as the perception that customer service is often diminished. In this respect, John Lewis is clearly at an advantage given its reputation in the market. Threat of Substitutes The threat of substitutes is low from a product viewpoint yet in terms of suppliers, is high and is underlined by the success of the supermarket chains in their clothing lines as well as the competitive landscape in the online space and the continuing popularity of price comparison websites and similar forums. Over time, online retailers could exert increased pressure on officials such as John Lewis, particularly in terms of pricing as well as sourcing of product ranges. Bargaining Power of Buyers This is considered as being extremely high given the range of suppliers in the market and the realisation that customers are faced with unprecedented choice. Price is clearly a key advantage for the retailers, but at the same time, in the particular segment in which John Lewis manages factors such as location, quality, customer service and atmospherics and added benefits to be derived from the in-store experience are significant. Such variables also assist in terms of differentiating the store from other competitors in the High Street. Bargaining Power of Suppliers Though it was just few years ago the retailers were considered as having a major effect over suppliers, this seems to be fairly changing, particularly with regard to restrictions in supply of some raw materials as well as other concerns in the global supply chain which might put the suppliers in a more favourable position and increase their bargaining power. Degree of Rivalry Rivalry is obviously intense mainly due to the immense choice available as well as the increasing pressure from on-line retailers. On this basis, competitors are ultimately jockeying for position (Porter, 1979) and increasingly retailers challenge themselves to differentiate in some manner through providing expanded ranges as well as complementary goods and other services. The success of John Lewis Christmas promotional campaigns in the last few years highlights how the company attempts to differentiate itself, particularly focusing on those matters which are considered to impact most on subsequent motivation of customers to make a purchase.